praetor

praetor aequus et sapiens
a fair and wise leader

praetor, ōris, m. [for praeitor, from praeeo].

• Prop., a leader, head, chief, president: regio imperio duo sunto: iique praeeundo, judicando, consulendo, praetores, judices, consules appellantor, Cic. Leg. 3, 3, 8.—So, in gen., of the chief magistrates in colonies, as in Capua: cum in ceteris coloniis duoviri appellentur, hi se praetores appellari volebant, Cic. Agr. 2, 34, 93; cf. the context.—Of the Roman consul as chief judge, Liv. 3, 55.—Of the dictator: praetor maximus, Liv. 7, 3: aerarii, president of the treasury, an office created by Augustus, Tac. A. 1, 75; id. H. 4, 9.—Of the suffetes in Carthage, Nep. Hann. 7, 4.—Of generals, commanders of foreign nations, Cic. Div. 1, 54, 123; id. Inv. 1, 33, 55; Nep. Milt. 4, 4 et saep.—
• II In partic., a praetor, a Roman magistrate charged with the administration of justice; the office was first made distinct from the consulship A. U. C. 387. After the first Punic war, A. U. C. 490, there were two, praetor urbanus for Roman citizens, and praetor peregrinus for strangers, Cic. Lael. 25, 96; id. Mur. 20, 41: praetor primus centuriis cunctis renunciatus, i. e. appointed first, id. Imp. Pomp. 1, 2; id. Pis. 1, 2; Gai. Inst. 1, 6; 1, 78. The praetor had a tribunal where he sat on the sella curulis, with the judges on subsellia beside him. But he used to decide less important controversies wherever the parties found him: e plano, Suet. Tib. 33: in aequo quidem et plano loco, Cic. Caecin. 17, 50: Quid vis in jus me ire? tu's praetor mihi, Plaut. Truc. 4, 3, 66 (840).—
• • • 2 Transf.
    • • • α For propraetor, a propraetor, an officer who, after the administration of the praetorship, was sent as governor to a province, Cic. Verr. 2, 4, 12, § 27; 2, 4, 25, § 56 al.—
        • β For proconsul, q. v., Cic. Fam. 2, 17, 6; id. Verr. 2, 3, 54, § 125.

praetor, ōris, m. (st. praeitor v. praeeo), eig., einer, der vorangeht, also übh. der Anführer, der Vorgesetzte; dah. I) im Zivilstande, der Prätor, vom Stadtoberhaupte in Kapua, Cic. de lege agr. 2, 92 sq.: von den Suffeten Karthagos, Nep. Hann. 7, 4: vom Konsul Roms als oberstem Richter, Liv. 3, 55, 12, auch praetor maximus genannt, Liv. 7, 3, 5. – Als die Plebejer in Rom den Anteil am Konsulate errungen hatten, wurde die Prätur vom Konsulate getrennt (i. J. 366 v. Chr.) und zu einer neuen Behörde erhoben, so daß der Prätor Amtsgenosse der Konsuln und bei deren Abwesenheit Verweser der höchsten Staatsgewalt war. Anfänglich gab es nur einen Prätor, und zwar einen Patrizier, darauf (seit 337 v. Chr.) einen Plebejer; seit 247 v. Chr. gab es zwei Prätoren, einen praetor urbanus u. einen praetor peregrinus. Der praetor urbanus hatte die Gerichtsbarkeit in Privatstreitigkeiten röm. Bürger unter sich; öffentliche Rechtssachen zu behandeln stand ihm nur im Auftrage des Volkes (lege populi) zu. Er stellte nur eine vorläufige Untersuchung der Rechtssache an und übergab das Weitere (cognitio) Geschworenenrichtern (iudices selecti), bis diese Sache spruchreif geworden, worauf er Recht sprach (ius dicere, iurisdictio). Dem praetor peregrinus lag die Entscheidung von Rechtsstreitigkeiten zwischen röm. Bürgern und Fremden ob. Unter den Kaisern wurde der Geschäftskreis der Prätoren auf geringere Gegenstände eingeschränkt. Sie erhielten nur die cura ludorum und Besorgung von Rechtsgeschäften. – Die Ehrenzeichen des Prätors glichen denen der Konsuln: in der Stadt begleiteten ihn zwei, außerhalb der Stadt sechs Liktoren; er trug die toga praetexta, hatte als besondere Gerichtsstätte ein Gerüst (tribunal gen.), wo er auf der sella curulis saß, und daneben auf Sesseln (subsellia) die Richter. Indessen entschied er unerhebliche Rechtssachen auch ohne alle Förmlichkeiten an jedem beliebigen Orte (ex aequo loco, e plano), s. Cic. Caecin. 50. Suet. Tib. 33. – Die jedesmaligen Prätoren, deren gesetzmäßiges Alter das 40. Lebensjahr war, verwalteten ihr Amt ein Jahr, worauf sie als propraetores in die ruhigen Provinzen (wie die gewesenen Konsuln als proconsules in die unruhigen Provinzen) gingen; dah. auch praetor für propraetor, wie Cic. Verr. 2, 12 u. 4, 56; ja selbst für proconsul, Cic. ep. 2, 17, 6; Verr. 3, 125. – praetor primus, der zuerst gewählte Prätor (was für ehrenvoll und als Zeichen der Volksgunst galt), Cic. Pis. 2. – Von diesen Prätoren sind zu unterscheiden die, denen die Verwaltung der Provinzen übertragen wurde (seit d. J. 228 v. Chr.), seitdem sich die röm. Herrschaft außerhalb Italiens ausgebreitet hatte. Die ersten beiden wurden nach Sizilien und Sardinien, hierauf (198 v. Chr.) zwei nach Hispanien geschickt, s. Liv. 32, 27, 6. Sulla vermehrte anfänglich ihre Anzahl auf acht, dann auf zehn; Cäsar sogar auf sechzehn. Unter Augustus, der ihre Zahl zwar verringert zu haben scheint, waren indessen bald zehn, bald vierzehn, ja achtzehn, Vell. 2, 89, 2. Suet. Aug. 37. – Von Augustus wurde das Amt der praetores aerarii (d.i. Vorsteher des Ärariums) gegründet, das bis auf Klaudius dauerte, Tac. ann. 1, 75; hist. 4, 9: und Markus Aurelius setzte einen praetor tutelaris ein, Capit. Anton. phil. 10. § 11. – II) als Übersetzung des griech. στρατηγός, der Anführer, Feldherr der nichtrömischen Völker, bes. der Landtruppen, Cic., Nep. u.a.: pr. navalis, Admiral, Vell.

praetor [CL] 1 leader, (military) commander. stratenus [v. l. strategus], ~or Osb. Glouc. Deriv. 556. 2 praetor, high-ranking Roman magistrate concerned with judicial matters; b (applied to ancient Israel); c (applied to ancient Athens); d (~or maximus) God as the Greatest Judge. curia ‥ domus magna in qua sedet ~or, i. praefectus Comm. Cant. III 85; Romanorum ~orum [gl.: principum, judicum, vel demena] filias ‥ instigavit Aldh. VirgP 48 p. 302; uberius pandunt geminae quod forte sorores / Attica et Arthemia praetoris sanguine cretae Id. VirgV 2114; ~ores, honores secundi a consulibus GlC P 810; sane ~or etsi viva vox juris esse dicatur, sententiam ejus veritas plerumque retractat J. Sal. Pol. 499C; illud Lucani ‘omnia Cesar erat’ [cf. Lucan Bell. Civ. III 108], erat enim consul, ~or, dictator, imperator Neckam SS III 92. 3; ut ‥ non liceat eumdem bis principari ‥ ut ~or et concionator W. Burley Pol. 277.  b sacerdotes et magistratus sive ~or [vv. ll. ~ores, praesides] templi ‥ qui doctores et judices videbantur populi Bede Acts 952.  c “o Pericles, aspice pulchrum puerum”. respondit Pericles: “~orem decet habere non solum manum et linguam continentes sed et oculos” W. Burley Vit. Phil. 170.  d ibat ad judicium, pretor quod maximus omni / egredienti anime discernit sedibus altis Æthelwulf Abb. 337. 3 high-ranking local official, usu. reeve or judge. b mayor. c (~or provincialis or sim.) sheriff or lieutenant of a county; d (contrasted with clerical office). ~or vel praefectus vel praepositus vel quaestor, burhgerefa Ælf. Gl. 110; c1162 his testibus ‥ Rogerus ~or de Froditonia E. Ch. Ox. 20; c1175 R. de Mobraio et Nigellus filius ejus cunctis baronibus justiciis ~oribus ceterisque ministeris suis ‥ salutem Ch. Mowbray 163 p. 120; 1194 reddet terram in manu ~oris ad opus domini (Pontefract) BBC 66; c1210 si quis burgensis voluerit fieri ‥ capiat burgagium suum de ~oribus Gild Merch. I 71; item juste possidet qui ~ore ductore possidet, id est per judicium Bracton f. 196; 13‥ si quis burgensis voluerit fieri, veniat in curia et reddat prefecto xij denarios et capiet burgagium suum de ~oribus; postea dabit famulo ~oris unum denarium ut ipse testificet eum burgensem in curia fieri Cust. Preston 496; ~or de curia colliget firmam ‥ regis ‥ Ib. 497.  b meyr, major, ~or PP; opulentissimum ~oris urbani in crastinum Simonis et Jude pro antiqua consuetudine concelebratum convivium André Hen. VII 100; Edmundus Shaus in numero censetur eorum / illo qui praetor Londinensis fuit anno J. Herd Hist. IV Regum 88; a mayre, major, ~or Levins Manip. 74.  c ex iis ‥ ~ores ‥ super provincias constituit R. Niger Chr. II 167; a lieutenant, ~or provincialis Levins Manip. 25; a sherife, ~or provincialis Ib. 118.  d c1214 focarie ad focum, auctore non dico pontifice set ~ore, et concubine ad cubiculum sunt reverse Gir. Ep. 8 p. 270. 4 (applied to other offices). primo transferuntur quinque Cantuariae archipraesules velut quinque Dominicae aulae ~ores Gosc. Transl. Aug. 40D; mutat pretorem [gl.: prepositum] pretio cui vendit honorem Garl. Mor. Scol. 524; hoc opus exiguum ludendo tempore feci / exiguo quod Parisius pretore relatum / conscripsere manus Id. Myst. Eccl. 635.

prætŏr, (6) ōris, m. (*præitor, præeo), ¶ 1 celui qui marche en tête, chef, commandant : a) préteur, magistrat suprême à Capoue : Cic. Agr. 2, 93 ; b) à Rome, primit^t , chef suprême surtout au titre militaire, cf. Liv. 30, 43, 9 ; les mots préteur, consul sont employés concurremment pour désigner les mêmes magistrats ; prætor maximus Liv. 7, 3, 5 = le dictateur ; c) général, chef dʼarmée [chez les étrangers] : Cic. Div. 1, 123 ; Inv. 1, 55 ; Nep. Milt. 4, 4, etc. ; d) [sous Aug.] prætores ærarii Tac. Ann. 1, 75, intendants du trésor public ¶ 2 à Rome, à partir de 367, le préteur est un magistrat distinct, chargé de la juridiction civile. En 242, dédoublement de la juridiction et deux préteurs [urbain, pérégrin] ; puis augmentation successive, 8 préteurs sous Sylla. Les préteurs tirent au sort leur provincia, département ; le préteur qui a la provincia ou sors ou jurisdictio urbana, rend la justice entre les citoyens dʼaprès les règles quʼil publie dans son edictum en entrant en charge ; cʼest le préteur le plus important ; il remplace le consul absent, préside le sénat, convoque le peuple en assemblée ou aux comices, etc. Le pérégrin rend la justice entre citoyens et étrangers et entre étrangers, lui aussi dʼaprès son édit. Les autres préteurs président les chambres dʼenquêtes permanentes, quæstiones perpetuæ. Après leur sortie de charge au bout dʼun an, ils vont dans une province comme propréteurs ; mais souvent on les désigne encore du nom de préteurs, cf. Cic. Verr. 2, 2, 12 ; 4, 56, etc.; Liv. 30, 2, 4 || qqf. prætor = proconsul Cic. Fam. 2, 17, 6 ; Verr. 2, 3, 125 || prætor primus Cic. Pis. 2 ; Pomp. 2, le préteur élu le premier [dans les comices prétoriens, titre dʼhonneur].

praetor , oris. m.
總官。臬司。元帥。Praetores aerarii 布政使。

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praetor ōris, m

• for * praeitor; prae+1 I-, a leader, head, chief, president, chief magistrate, chief executive, commander: se praetores appellari volebant (the chief magistrates of Capua): maximus, L.: creant praetores, qui exercitui praeessent, generals, N.—In Rome, a praetor, magistrate charged with the administration of justice(first appointed B.C.367, from the patricians; plebeians became eligible after B.C.338; after B.C.264 two were chosen each year, one with jurisdiction over citizens, the other over strangers): urbanus: urbis: cum praetores designati sortirentur, had their jurisdiction assigned by lot: praetor primus centuriis cunctis renunciatus, i. e. appointed first.—A propraetor, ex-praetor as governor of a province: dicto audientem fuisse se praetori.—A proconsul.

PRAETOR

PRAETORThis title, which Cicero (de Legg. 3.3, 8) connects with praeire, is found among the Latin races, and is used by Livy as equivalent to that of strategus with the Achaeans. Among the Romans we first read of it immediately after the expulsion of the kings: for a single hereditary ruler they substituted two annually elected magistrates, first known as Praetors, and only later as Consuls; whence Cicero, in the passage referred to, represents the title as properly descriptive of the Consuls as leaders of the armies of the state; and the familiar use of Praetorium in connexion with military command, and the meaning which it bears in Livy of the period and powers of the consular office, are also indicative of the original character of this magistracy.

As distinct from the consulship, the praetorship proper is said by Livy (Liv. 6.42, 7.1-Z2) to have been instituted B.C. 366, though the truth would seem to be that so long as the military tribunate was in existence two consuls were from time to time elected in lieu of tribuni militares, and that when this was the case a third magistrate was always appointed, called praetor, to assist them in their duties. However this may be, the praetor, probably even at this period called praetor urbanus in allusion to the older magistracy of the custos urbis whom he superseded (Joan. Lydus, de Mens. 19; de Magistr. 2.6), was, as soon as the office became permanent, elected annually from the patricians only, who secured a monopoly of the new office as a compensation to themselves for being compelled to share the consulship with the plebeians (Livy, l. c.), none of the latter attaining the praetorship till B.C. 337; he was termed collega of the consuls, and was elected with the same auspices at the Comitia Centuriata (Liv. 7.1, 45.44-Z2; Gellius (Gell. 13.15). His chief functions were judicial (jus in urbe dicere, Liv. 6.42; jura reddere, ib. 7.1), it being to relieve the consuls (who according to the passage of Cicero referred to were called judices a judicando) of this class of business that his office was established; but the consuls in the earlier Roman history being so constantly engaged on active military service, he frequently had to take their place in the city (Liv. 24.9; Cic. ad Fam. 10.1. 2; Dio Cass., 109.24), in the senate (Gell. 14.7; Liv. 8.2, &c.), and in the Comitia (Liv. 22.33, 25.27-Z2), and in some cases of emergency even commanded the Roman armies. He was a curule magistrate and had the imperium, though in a less degree than the consuls (Gell. 13.15; Liv. 43.14; Val. Max., 2; Cic. ad Att. 9.9), to whom he owed obedience and all the external marks of reverence (Liv. 10.25, 27.5-Z2; Dio Cass.; Plb. 23.1; Aurel. Victor, de Vir. illust. 72). His insignia of office were six lictors (Appian, de reb. Syr. 15), whence he is called by Polybius ἡγεμὼν or στρατηγὸς ἑξαπέλεκυς, and sometimes simply ἑξαπέλεκυς. Plutarch (Sulla, 5) uses the expression στρατηγία πολιτική. At a later period the praetor had only two lictors in Rome (Censorinus, 100.24). As appears from Livy, the praetorship was at first given to a consul of the preceding year, and L. Papirius was praetor after being consul (Liv. 10.47).

Unlike the consulship, the office was one to the number of whose holders additions might be constitutionally made as circumstances required (Cic. de Legg. l. c.), and accordingly in B.C. 246 a second praetor was created, who for distinction's sake was called Praetor Peregrinus, for the administration of justice in all disputes between peregrini or peregrini and cives (Dig. 1, 2, 2, 28; Joan. Lydus, de Magistr. 1.38, 45; Liv. Epit. 19), and from this time onward the two offices seem to have been regularly divided between the patricians and plebeians (Niebuhr, Röm. Geschichte, 3.177), it being determined by lot which of the two should be urbanus and which peregrinus, though if either was required for military command the functions of both within the city were discharged by the other (Liv. 24.44, 25.3-Z2, 27.36-Z2). When the territories of Rome were extended beyond the limits of Italy, new praetors were created for the government of the provinces: two in 227 B.C. for the administration of Sicily and Sardinia (Liv. Epit. 20; Dig. 1, 2, 2, 32) and two thirty years later for the Spanish provinces (Liv. 32.27): it being settled by lot which of the praetorian provinces each of the four praetors who went abroad was to govern. Later it became common for the praetor urbanus or peregrinus, after he had discharged his judicial functions for one year, to be sent to govern a province for another; a period which in many cases was prolonged until by the Lex Julia of Caesar it was provided that no governor should administer a praetorian province for more than one year (Cic. Phil. 1.8, 19). In connexion with the institution of quaestiones perpetuae for the trial of crimes, Sulla increased the number of praetors from six to eight, all of whom as a rule exercised judicial functions at Rome during their proper year of office, becoming propraetors in the provinces for the following year: under Caesar the number was raised successively to ten, twelve, fourteen, and sixteen (Sueton. Jul. 41; Dio Cass., 43.47, 49, 51; Dig. 1, 2, 2, 32), and by Augustus reduced to twelve and earlier to ten (Dio Cass., 56.25); but under Tiberius there were as many as sixteen (Dio Cass., 59.20). Subsequently additional praetors were created for special departments of legal business: two by Claudius (reduced by Titus to one) for all suits relating to fideicommissa, when the business in this department of law had become considerable (Dig. l. c.; Sueton. Claud. 23), and one by Nerva for the hearing of actions between the fiscus and subjects of the Empire (Dig. ib.): so that, as Pomponius (speaking of his own time), says in Dig. 1, 2, 2, 34, eighteen praetors jus dicunt in the state. According to Capitolinus (Marc. 10), M. Aurelius added a nineteenth praetor. for matters relating to guardianship, upon whose duties Ulpian wrote a liber singularis (Dig. 27, 1, 3, 5, 9).

It will be clear from what has been said that the main business of the praetors was judicial; the praetors urbanus and peregrinus had the control of the whole system of Roman civil judicature, in connexion with which their work is sufficiently described under other articles, especially those on EDICTUM, JUDEX, and JURISDICTIOSometimes, however, extraordinary duties were imposed on them: e. g. in B.C. 144 the praetor peregrinus was commissioned by a senatusconsultum to look after the repair of certain aqueducts and prevent the improper use of the water (Frontinus, de Aquaeduct. lib. i.): so too, though the appointment of guardians was no constitutional part of the praetor's province (Dig. 26, 1, 6, 2), it was conferred, within the city of Rome, on the praetor urbanus and the majority of the tribuni plebis by a lex Atilia (Gaius, 1.185). It was part of the same magistrate's duties to superintend the Ludi Apollinares, and so close an application to business was required from him that he was permitted to leave the city for only ten days at a time. With criminal prosecutions he had originally no more to do than any other magistrate; but when in 149 B.C. (Cic. Brut. 27, 106) L. Calpurnius Piso established the first quaestio perpetua for the trial of extortion (repetundae), one of the praetors was permanently entrusted with its supervision, and the same practice was followed with the quaestiones instituted by Sulla and others for the trial of Ambitus, Majestas, Peculatus, Falsum, Parricidium, &c. Though a praetor presided over the criminal proceedings in these cases, the judges were selected from the senators, knights, or tribuni aerarii at different periods of history, the condemnation or acquittal of the accused being determined by a majority of their votes. [JUDICIUM]

Any place in which the praetor might by law or custom exercise his magisterial functions was called jus (Dig. 1, 1, 11). Some of these, however, could never be performed elsewhere than pro tribunali, where his curule chair was set upon the comitium, the patrician portion of the Forum, and where he sat with his friends and assessors: contrasted with the tribunal were the Subsellia, or part occupied by the judices or other persons who were present (Cic. Brut. 84, 290).

Other judicial acts, however, could even tolerably early be performed by him anywhere (Gaius, 1.20), viz. acts of the voluntaria jurisdictio, such as legitimation of manumissions, in jure cessio, &c. In such cases he was said to exercise jurisdiction de piano, and the volume of business so transacted increased so steadily that at length regular sessiones de plano were held (fragm. Vat. 161), at which the praetor sometimes heard and adjudicated upon disputes: the rule as to what occasions required him to sit pro tribunali, and for what a de piano jurisdiction sufficed, may be gathered from Dig. 38, 1, 3, 8; 38, 15, 2, 1; 1, 16, 9, 1.

The office of the praetor continued to exist throughout the imperial period, though his activity in the issue of annual edicts must have slackened considerably at the fall of the Republic, and ceased altogether on the publication of the Edictum perpetuum of Salvius Julianus [EDICTUM]. In the Eastern Empire there were at first two praetors only, which number was gradually raised to eight, and then reduced to three, each of whom was distinguished by a special name, e. g. Constantinianus, triumphalis (Cod. Theod. 6, 4, 5, 13, &c.); they were selected by the senate, but the selection had to be confirmed by the emperor (Cod. Theod. 6, 4, 8, 9, 10, &c.). They still possessed jurisdictio, though their importance in the earlier imperial period was greatly diminished by the development of the emperor's own jurisdiction and of a regular system of appellate courts: under Justinian, and in fact from the abolition of the formula (A.D. 294) onward, the office seems to be merely that of a judge of first instance.

A person who had been ejected from the senate could recover his rank by being made praetor (Dio Cass.; Plut. Cicero, 17). Sallustius was made praetor ἐπὶ τῷ τὴν βουλὴν ἀναλαβεῖν (Dio Cass. xlii.. 52).

[J.B.M]

Praetor

(=στρατηγός, and derived by Cicero from praeire). Originally a title of the Roman consuls, but afterwards used to denote that magistrate to whom the administration of justice in Rome was transferred, when the consulship, to which this power had hitherto been attached, was thrown open to the commons in B.C. 366. At first reserved for the patricians, it became a plebeian office as early as 337. The praetor was elected in the Comitia Centuriata, with one of the consuls presiding, on the same day and with the same auspices as the consuls, who entered on their office simultaneously with him. On account of the increase in legal business, a second praetor was appointed in 242, to whom was transferred the hearing of the cases between citizens and foreigners (inter cives et peregrinos) and between foreigners (inter peregrinos), while the other decided between citizens. The latter, who ranked first, was called praetor urbanus (city praetor); the former, praetor inter peregrinos and (after the time of Vespasian) praetor peregrinus.

The praetors had their respective departments determined by lot after their election. While the praetor peregrinus might have a military command also intrusted to him, the city praetor, on account of the importance of his office, might not be absent from Rome, strictly speaking, for longer than ten days. He represented his absent colleague and also the consuls in their absence, presiding, as the highest magistrate present, at the public games, watching over the safety of Rome, summoning the Comitia Centuriata, holding the military levies, and the like. As early as 227 the number was further increased by two. To these was intrusted the administration of Sicily and Sardinia. Two others were added in 197 to administer the two provinces of Spain. In 149, on the establishment of the quaestiones perpetuae, a standing criminal court for certain stated offenders, the rule was introduced that the entire body of praetors should stay in Rome during their year of office; the praetors urbanus and inter peregrinos having jurisdiction in civil cases, as hitherto, while the others presided in the quaestiones, and had to instruct the jurors as to the case before the court, and to carry out the sentence passed. After the completion of their year of office, they all proceeded as propraetors or proconsuls to the praetorian provinces assigned them by lot. In consequence of the multiplication of the quaestiones and of the provinces, the number of praetors was raised by Sulla to eight, by Caesar to ten, fourteen, and sixteen. Under the Empire the praetorship lost its former importance, the civil jurisdiction of the praetor urbanus and peregrinus being in part transferred to the praefectus urbi and praefectus praetorio, while the criminal jurisdiction of the others ceased with the gradual decay of the quaestiones, and the praetors retained only particular departments of their judicial power and general administration. Their most important function was the management of the games, some of which had already, in republican times, been assigned to the praetor urbanus. When their year's office had expired, they went as proconsuls to the senatorial provinces. Their election was transferred to the Senate by Tiberius. Under the Republic the statutory age for the office was forty; under the Empire, thirty. The praetor's insignia were the toga praetexta, the sella curulis, and, in the provinces, six lictors; in Rome, probably two. Like the consul, he had the honour of a triumph open to him. See magistratus.